Government Wastes - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 1 Words: 249 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/09/12 Category Advertising Essay Did you like this example? Government Waste References Linda M. Smith Oklahoma Wesleyan University May 3, 2010 References Barro, R. (2009, January 22). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Government Wastes" essay for you Create order Government spending is no free lunch. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from https://online. wsj. com Conway, K. (1997). Labor supply, taxes, and government spending: A microeconometric analysis. Review of Economics and Statistics, 79(1), 50-67. Retrieved from https://www. icpsr. umich. edu Engemann, K. , Owyang, M. , Zubairy, S. (2008). A primer on the empirical identification of government spending shocks. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, 90(2), 117-132. Retrieved from https://www. icpsr. umich. du Goren, P. (2008). The two faces of government. Political Research Quarterly, 61(1), 147. Retrieved from https://www. icpsr. umich. edu Gupta, S. , Verhoeven, M. , Tiongson, E. (2002). The effectiveness of government spending on education and health care in developing and transition economies. European Journal of Political Economy, 18(4), 717-737. Retrieved from https://www. icpsr. umich. edu Hulse, C. (2010, April 9). What is, and isn’t, appropriate deficit spending? T he New York Times. Retrieved from https://www. nytimes. com Jacoby, W. (2008). Comment: The dimensionality of public attitudes toward government spending. Political Research Quarterly, 61(1), 158-161. Retrieved from https://www. icpsr. umich. edu Liptak, A. (2010, January 21). Justices, 5-4, reject corporate spending limit. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www. nytimes. com Montgomery, L. (2010, January 26). Obama to propose freeze on government spending. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www. washingtonpost. com Rasinski, K. , Smith, T. , Zuckerbraun, S. (1994). Fairness motivations and tradeoffs underlying public support for government environmental spending in nine nations. Journal of Social Issues, 50(3), 179-197. Retrieved from https://www. icpsr. umich. edu

Healthcare Finance - 1518 Words

In 2010, the United States health care spending grew 3.9 percent. The total health care expenditures reached $2.6 trillion, which translates to $8,402 per person or 17.9 percent of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Health care spending plays a major role in shaping our countrys health care system. Financing health care influences how people access health care, the types of health care provided, and how the cost of health care is distributed among members of society by income and by health status. The United States has been in a recession for much of the past decade, resulting in higher unemployment and lower incomes for many Americans. (Wikipedia) There are three main reasons why spending in the United States has†¦show more content†¦The total Medicaid spending grew 7.2 percent in 2010 to $401.4 billion. Federal Medicaid expenditures increased 8.9 percent, while state Medicaid expenditures grew 3.9 percent. This difference in growth was due to approximatel y $41 billion in enhanced federal aid to states—a result of increased Federal Medical Assistance Percentages mandated by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. (Wikipedia) Health care spending has increased over the past decade, in which has contributed to the United States deficit. In the years to come it seems as it’s only going to worse. In order to ensure that U.S. citizens have affordable and accessible health care, the government has stepped in. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), is a United States federal statute signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. The goal of the healthcare reform is to make healthcare more affordable and accessible to all American citizens. This package will cost roughly $940 billion over 10 years to provide expanded insurance coverage, according to Congressional Budget Office. 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This sample contains the case questions, case solutions, instructor model, and PowerPoints for Chapter 4. The complete instructor resources consist of 268 pages of instructor’s notes including case questions and case solutions; instructor model spreadsheets; and 623 PowerPoint slides. If you adopt this text you will be given access to complete materials. To obtain access, e-mail yourRead MoreDifference Between Healthcare Finance Terminology And Business Finance Essay1474 Words   |  6 PagesThe major difference between healthcare finance terminology and business finance terminology is that these terms focus on factors unique to the health services industry. For example, the provision of health services is dominated by not-for-profit or ¬ganizations (such as ours), which are inherently different from investor-owned businesses. Also, the majority of payments made to health ¬care providers for services are not made by patients—the consumers of the services—but rather by some third-partyRead MoreMajor Difference Between Healthcare Finance Terminology And Business Finance Essay1480 Words   |  6 Pages Overview of Healthcare Finance Final Project â€Æ' The major difference between healthcare finance terminology and business finance terminology is that these terms focus on factors unique to the health services industry. For example, the provision of health services is dominated by not-for-profit or ¬ganizations (such as ours), which are inherently different from investor-owned businesses. Also, the majority of payments made to health ¬care providers for services are not made by patients—the consumersRead MoreEssay on Healthcare Finance Chapter 1 and 22348 Words   |  10 Pages1- Question and Answers 1.1 a. What are some of the industries in the healthcare sector? 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Hamlet written by William Shakespeare Essay Example For Students

Hamlet written by William Shakespeare Essay The passage takes place in Act 5 Scene 1 of Hamlet written by William Shakespeare. The portion of the scene takes place inside a graveyard, in the middle of the night. The characters present are Hamlet, his friend and advisor Horatio, and a gravedigger, identified as the Clown. Hamlet and Horatio are watching a gravedigger empty a grave of its bodies, most likely to replace it with another body. Hamlet reflects on what the lives of these dead souls were like, and how disgraceful it is for the gravedigger to treat people like this. Eventually, he is completely jarred by the Clowns insensitivity and disrespect towards death, and he confronts him. The two engage in witty, morbid banter. When Hamlet is informed late in the scene that one of the skulls belonged to the beloved court jester, Yorick, he breaks down, and reflects on death and its affect on himself. His experiences with death have not been positive, for example, with the passing of his father.  The passage is structured as a dialogue, first between Horatio and Hamlet, and then between Hamlet and the Clown. Occasionally, Hamlet lapses into a monologue-like passage, in that he rants and raves while Horatio and the Clown listen. The mood and atmosphere of the passage is dark and morbid. Since the scene takes place in a graveyard, the doom and gloom of the passage is really emphasized. Skulls are being tossed around by the Clown, and when they are not being tossed around, death is being discussed at length. The song sung by the Clown sets the mood from the get go. But age, with his stealing steps, hath clawd me in his clutch. (10-11) The song is about death creeping up on humans, which is discussed further in the scene. Imagery is a key device used frequently throughout the passage. It is generally morbid, disturbing and quite graphic in nature. Descriptions of skulls, dead bodies, and weapons to name a few are seen repeatedly through the passage. I faith, if he be not rotten before he die-as we have many pocky corses now-a-days (103-04) The clown is quite crudely describing corpses that were arriving at the cemetery. The morbid imagery pictured in the mind of the reader is commonplace for the Clown, who as Horatio so succinctly said, Custom hath made it in him a property of easiness. (6) It reveals the Clowns insensitivity, as well as how accustomed he is to death. In general, just imagining a man throwing skulls out of graving, while singing, is quite disturbing. However, these morose images and descriptions are contrasted by Hamlets loving description of the deceased court jester, Yorick. A fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy: he hath borne me on his back a thousand times. (123-24) Through this line, we see a softer, more loving side of Hamlet, as well as a rare peek at what his life must have been like before the demise of his father and his own breakdown into insanity. The use of irony is also used to further develop the Hamlet and the Clowns characters. In general, the throwing of the skulls, though morbid, is foreshadowing the events to come in the next scene, with the demise of the entire royal family. The gravedigger almost seems to be more powerful, though lower in stature, than Hamlet, as he controls the rites of the body, and how long they get to stay in the graveyard. As well, the banter between Hamlet and the Clown had undertones of dark humour. From lines 60 to 75, the counter back and forth, questioning whose grave the Clown was standing in. .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb , .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb .postImageUrl , .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb , .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb:hover , .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb:visited , .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb:active { border:0!important; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb:active , .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u6748aa095732b9d7226799dfb0fd2afb:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Shakespeare's 10 things EssayThe Clown said it was his; You lie out ont sir, and therefore it is not yours: for my part, I do not lie int, and yet it is mine. (62-63) After some time, Hamlet himself gets fed up with the wittiness of the Clown; he is not used to be countered in this way, as because of his stature, he generally is never talked to in such a way. Hamlet states, We must speak by the card, or equivocation will undo us, (77-78) which is ironic because he himself equivocates quite frequently, like Polonius and other courtiers. Again, another instance of irony is when Hamlet again masks his identity. He carries on a conversation with the Clown about himself and his whereabouts. Though the Clown appears to believe he is well informed in regards to the Prince, he does not realize he is talking to him. He humorously states that Hamlet recovering his wits in England does not matter; there the men are as mad as he. (94-95) Diction is a major contributor to the revealing of character and plot. At the beginning of the passage when the Clown is singing about death, it reveals his insensitivity and disrespect to not only his surroundings, but also to the individuals there. His crassness shows how accustomed he is to such morbidity. The Clown is lower class, which can be determined by his language. He speaks in prose throughout the passage, using contractions and vulgar diction throughout. He uses words such as int, tis, and twill, further emphasizing the class difference between Hamlet and the Clown. The Clown uses language in a very crafty manner, tying in with the irony of the passage, as well as the dark, moody tone. This is seen in his quick exchange with Hamlet. Here, Hamlet asks questions (albeit about himself), and the Clown responds with a quick, succinct response. It is important to note that Hamlet also speaks in prose when conversing with the Clown. When observing the Clowns manner of speaking, it is very direct and dry. Horatios lack of speaking roles emphasizes his role as a listener and observer. Horatio speaks very few lines, and the times he speaks are to Hamlet only, where he responds to what Hamlet says. Antithesis is apparent throughout the piece, and is reflected through diction and imagery. There is contrast in diction and the way of communication between Hamlet and the Clown. The Clown speaks in a very succinct manner, and proves all of his points. He uses more slang terms as well as vulgar diction. Hamlet on the other hand, rants and raves, and talks around the issues he discusses. However, he speaks in a more polite, socially acceptable manner. It reflects their characters, in that Hamlets social class and higher standards are revealed. The Clowns vulgarity reflects his lower stature in society, as well as more freedom of words. In regards to imagery, there is a major contrast between the morbid imagery present at the beginning of the passage, in comparison to the imagery seen at the end, when Hamlet is describing the court jester. From talk of pocky corses (104) to a fellow of infinite jest (123), the progression to a more pure and loving side of Hamlet is revealed. There are many staging opportunities available with this scene, because of the flexibility and vagueness of the stage directions. The throwing of the skulls, as well as the positioning of the actors can be put in to question. The depth of the grave the Clown is standing in would make a big impact. As well, if Horatio and Hamlet are standing directly over the grave, and therefore directly over the Clown, it displays their higher status, as if they are talking down to him. Hamlet, progressively bending closer and closer to the ground could symbolize him equalling himself to the Clown, as well as progressively getting closer to death, and his own grave. When Hamlet is holding the skull of the jester, the actor perhaps, could be holding it gently, to symbolize his love for the deceased Yorick. .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb , .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb .postImageUrl , .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb , .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb:hover , .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb:visited , .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb:active { border:0!important; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb:active , .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u64cac094898ba9947aeb2f4df15427cb:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: What do you find interesting about the way Shakespeare presents the opening scene in King Lear to the audience? EssayIn conclusion, this passage from Act 5 Scene 1 is the last scene of comedy in the play. Hamlets character is revealed more, as we see his moral code in regards to respecting the dead. As well, the reader sees his softer side, and a glimpse of his old life through his descriptions of Yorick, the jester. Through mood, atmosphere, imagery, diction, antithesis and staging opportunities, the characters of Hamlet and the Clown are revealed.

Women And Sexism Essays (732 words) - Sexism, Discrimination

Women And Sexism We [women] are, as a sex, infinitely superior to men. Elizabeth Stanton (prominent woman suffragist) - (excerpted from One Woman, One Vote by Wheeler, pg. 58) Frailty, thy name is woman. William Shakespeare - (excerpted from Hamlet, Act I, scene 2) This quote made by Stanton in 1890 shows many of the feministic beliefs held by the women of today. And the quote made by Shakespeare holds many of the same thoughts shared by men. The battle of the sexes is prevalent everywhere and is applicable to anything. From athletics to the military, men and women struggle to beat the other, but I find it to be particularly found in the workplace. Men and women are extremely competitive with occupations, and men feel superior to women. They [men] know the statistics are more favorable to them and they would like to keep it that way. If this is true, then how do women and men share the world together without war between each other? I believe that for both sides to prevent this from occurring, they ignore many of the differences. Many women choose not to see the statistics or they do not care and accept that men are more successful than women are. The story Tales Out of Medical School, written by Adriane Fugh-Berman, which is an account about a woman that chose not to ignore the differences that faced her, shows another side to the superficial harmony. Fugh-Berman faces sexism and discrimination at Georgetown Medical School where women are the minority. She sees the various examples of sexism from her anatomy instructors to the Academic Deans. There were classes that were only offered to men, and when she tried to change that the whole course was put on hold. This of course caused extreme tension between the men and the women of this class. Just because you can't take this course, why do you want to ruin it for the rest of us? was one of the comments made by one of her male classmates. Subconsciously this man does not want this woman to succeed. Her classmates that are women and are not bothered by the sexism also shock her. In reference to this a classmate stated, Oh, they're just of the old school. (referring to the doctors that ignored the women students) This account shows the sad truth that some women are happy to accept sexism and discrimination. For the women that do not, there is a long struggle ahead. Many do not make it t o the end, or they tire of the pressures put upon them. For example, Shannon Faulkner who wished to become the first woman in the Citadel was mocked, ridiculed and harassed until she withdrew. And why wouldn't the men of the Citadel want to see a fellow human being where they take so much pride? The fact that she is a she and they do not like that a woman would be on the same level. Hilary Clinton is yet another example of a woman put down for being in control. The tabloids and newspapers tore Hilary apart for trying to take over the President's job. Why would it bother them that she may have been helping out the economy? Once gain, the president is a man, and there is no need for a woman to help. Even in my personal everyday experiences sexism is everywhere. And sadly enough, it is accepted everywhere. In recreational books women play passive roles, in movies and even TV sitcoms. For example in the sitcom Dharma and Greg, which is about a young married couple, the man is a successful lawyer from a wealthy family, while Dharma is a cute little blonde that cracks jokes. My own boyfriend will make wise cracks of how after he goes to medical school and becomes a successful doctor he will provide for me, and I won't have to do anything. Talking with some friends in the Wharton school of business, I see more sexism than I thought existed in the nineties. 78% of the Wharton undergraduates are men and they believe this is so because the business world doesn't need women. In my generation, there arise the same sexist beliefs held centuries

Business model and planning case study

Table of Contents Customer Value Capabilities Connected Activities Works Cited Customer Value The firm is at a position of utilizing technology to the point of improving the quality of living all over the world. The firm invented machines that enabled the consumers to find ease especially in movement. The invention of the iBot made it easier for the consumers to move up and down stairs and even over rough surfaces. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Business model and planning case study specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Home choice dialysis machine was made in such a manner as to enable the patients with chronic renal failure move freely. It is also portable hence can be easily carried in planes or cars. There is also the intravascular stent that help patients suffering from heart problems amongst other inventions in the medical field that are reliable (Cho 319). The firm invented an alternative mode of transpo rt referred to as Segway Human Transporter. This machine offers customers and their goods convenience of moving short distances effectively. It increased the speed of movement at less amount of energy per person. The Segway HT is offered in two models the i-Series for personal and business people and the e series for transporting huge and heavy loads; it is priced like any other consumer electronic product (Cho 320). Capabilities The firms’ invention, the Segway HT, uses a design that has a smaller base with a unique stability that provides the users with safe stable and effective movement. Segway HT is provided in two unique models, the iSeries model that uses low pressure tires making it move easily over uneven grounds. The eSeries on the other hand have several capabilities which includes having an electric stand that enables it balance on its own, this provides the user the convenience of moving on and off the model when at work. The unit also provides for extra carriage capacity for luggage (Cho 319- 322). One of the capability gaps to be worked on is the weight of the design; it seems to be heavier than expected. To counter this gap the firm has plans to design a lighter version known as p-Series. The other disadvantage is that the design has no transportation laws to guard its use on the sidewalks. The firm’s capability lies on its dynamic stabilized technology that enables it to configure one of the most efficient means of personal transport. The Segway HT does not use fossil fuel which makes it convenient compared to other automobiles. This uniqueness makes it possible to be used in more congested cities where pollution is a threat. The firm has derived all of these capabilities from the combination of science, engineering and right focus (Cho 319- 322).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In order to ensure stability the firm give s its employees the freedom to be innovative and creative, the manager encourages the staff and believes every idea from any person can always work provided it’s given the right attention (Cho 318). The Segway HT is unique in the sense that it has the ability of transporting people and goods without any space restrictions that most vehicles encounter. It does not need any fuelling for its operation and is reliable for short distance transportation. Connected Activities The company has tapped on the available knowledge and talent by recruiting creative people from different field of study. Through the engineers, the firm runs multiple small projects and encourages the outcome hence making quick development of any good idea generated (Cho 319). The firm works hand in hand with development experts from outside the company. The partners provide financial support and required technology whenever need arises. This helps the firm meet the expected deadlines during the process of dev elopment. The partners include; silicon sensing systems for integrated circuit boards and Axicon for gear manufacture (Cho 321). The firm promotes the sales of this machine through the Segway LLC which acts as marketing channel for the product. The firm has an experienced management team from other recognized companies that have helped in the development process, operations, human resource management, financial management, sales and marketing process (Cho 323). Works Cited Cho, Christopher, et al. Segway Human Transport case study. 29th March, 2010 www.dekaresearch.com/ This essay on Business model and planning case study was written and submitted by user Yadiel Hayes to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Critical Study of the Aetiology and Pathogenesis of Infantile Glaucoma The WritePass Journal

Critical Study of the Aetiology and Pathogenesis of Infantile Glaucoma Introduction Critical Study of the Aetiology and Pathogenesis of Infantile Glaucoma IntroductionEpidemiology of Primary Infantile Glaucoma Signs, Symptoms and Consequences of Primary Infantile GlaucomaPathology, Pathogeneses and Causes of Primary Infantile GlaucomaOptic Cup Asymmetry in Primary Infantile Glaucoma Secondary infantile glaucomaReferencesRelated Introduction The incidence of glaucoma in the young population is incomparable to the incidence in the adult population, as it is very rare in infants, nevertheless it can significantly affect a child’s life, as vision is vital for a young child. Signs and symptoms of infantile glaucoma can commonly be overlooked and this can cause a delay to the treatment process. The underlying causes of infantile glaucoma have been agreed upon by most authors, however the exact mechanism by which the structures in the young eye are affected are debatable. As well as primary infantile glaucoma, young children can also be affected by secondary infantile glaucoma, which again can significantly impact a young child’s life. This paper looks at the classifications, epidemiology, signs, symptoms, aetiology and pathogenesis of primary infantile glaucoma, as well as touching upon the causes of secondary infantile glaucoma. ‘Glaucoma is an Optic neuropathy with characteristic appearances of the optic disc and specific pattern of visual field defects that is associated frequently but not variably with raised intra-ocular pressure (IOP)’ (Kanski, 2003). The ciliary processes of the eye produce aqueous humor; this is then drained by the trabecular meshwork; Figure 1. A balance of this production and drainage maintains a normal IOP. The aqueous humor produced flows into the posterior chamber, then through the pupil and into the anterior chamber. The trabecular meshwork drains the aqueous humor through Schlemm’s canal. Open angle glaucoma occurs when there is a decrease in the outflow of aqueous through the trabecular meshwork, and angle closure glaucoma occurs when the iris adheres to the lens leading to a build-up of aqueous humor in the posterior chamber   (Kanski, 2003). In addition to open and closed angle glaucoma there are other types of glaucoma which are classified in Figure 2. There are several classifications of congenital and infantile glaucomas, the most accepted and simplified version is presented in figure 3. Primary infantile glaucoma is defined as ‘the result of isolated abnormal development of the anterior chamber angle structures’ (Myron Yanoff, 2009) Secondary infantile glaucomas are ‘associated with a variety of ocular and systemic syndromes and with surgical aphakia’ (Myron Yanoff, 2009). Primary congenital glaucoma is present at birth however it is not always recognised at this stage and sometimes it is diagnosed later during infancy or in early childhood. To minimise problematic visual development, recognition of primary congenital glaucoma must be as early as possible followed by respective treatment or therapy, allowing the child to lead a ‘normal’ life (A.Armstrong, 2008). Glaucoma in infants and young children is relatively rare and in some cases asymptomatic (Kanski, 2003). And so, if an increase in IOP is not detected at an early stage then there is a greater risk of blindness (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Some cases of glaucoma in infants are only recognised and diagnosed after several months or years at which stage sometimes significant glaucomatous damage has already occurred (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Most cases will present bilaterally nevertheless this does not rule out the fact that it can sometimes present unilaterally   (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Epidemiology of Primary Infantile Glaucoma Primary infantile glaucoma is extremely rare and occurs in one out of 10,000 births (MillerSJ, 1966). It accounts for 0.01% to 0.04% of cases of total blindness (A.Armstrong, 2008) (Vincent P Deluise, 1983) In the Irish childhood population primary open angle glaucoma is the cause of blindness for 4% of the population. (Morin JD, 1974) The majority of cases in the US and Europe present with bilateral primary infantile glaucoma; 65%-80% (Moller, 1977). It is also well-known that it occurs greater in males compared to females with a ratio of 3:2 respectively (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). This is proven by a study with 125 infants from Westerlund, 76 of whom were male i.e. nearly 61% were males (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). On the other hand in Japan, this is no longer true and the ratio is actually reversed (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). In another study based in Japan out of 46 children with primary infantile glaucoma 63% were actually female (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). In the majority of cases the development of primary infantile glaucoma is found to sporadic, and so it is non-familial and nonhereditary, but approximately 10% of cases are familial, transmitted to the child via autosomal recessive inheritance (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). Signs, Symptoms and Consequences of Primary Infantile Glaucoma Children are commonly referred to the Ophthalmologist due to clinical evidence of corneal oedema. Primary infantile glaucoma is commonly misdiagnosed, hence causing a delay in the correct diagnosis, as it may initially show symptoms similar to conjunctivitis such as a ‘red eye’ (Becker B, 1965). There will also be evidence of the classic triage; epiphora, blepharospasm and photophobia. (Becker B, 1965). Further examination will reveal megalocornea (enlarged corneal diameter), buphthalmos (enlarged globe), Haab’s striae (breaks in Descemet’s membrane) and optic nerve head changes (Becker B, 1965). Buphthalmos; figure 4, or ocular enlargement, occurs in primary infantile glaucoma because the globe of neonates is still distensible (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). Collagen of the cornea and scleral have not hardened enough, so expansion of the fibrils occurs due to an increase in IOP (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). This therefore causes stretching to occur in several structures of the infant eye; such as the cornea, the anterior chamber angle, the sclera, the optic nerve, scleral canal and the lamina cribrosa (Becker B, 1965). This explains why ocular enlargement due to glaucoma does not occur in adults, as the globe is no longer distensible and collagen fibres of the cornea are sclera are hardened hence expansion doesn’t occur in adults. It is agreed that delayed therapy of infants with glaucoma, will result in a poor visual outcome for the infant, which could have been prevented or at least minimised. To understand why some infants had more advanced glaucoma than others; a study with 24 infants and children was conducted (David J. Seidman MD1, 3 March 1986). Their signs and symptoms were noted. The parents of the infant were asked to indicate whether they had noticed either epiphora or photophobia and only 32% said their infant had these symptoms. A small 21% of infants presented with only signs of glaucoma, noticed by the parents but no symptoms. And finally the majority of infants, 90%, actually did have signs when presenting to the physician. It has been noted that signs of infantile glaucoma are more difficult to notice when it is bilateral, as in all 3 cases where the physicians failed several times to refer the infant to an ophthalmologist the glaucoma was in fact bilateral   (David J. Seidman MD1, 3 March 1 986). A normal value for the corneal diameter of a neonate is approximately 10mm, an increase to 12mm or greater, along with expansion of the corneal-scleral junction, is usually due to increased IOP (Kwitko, 1973). Enlargement of the cornea due to an increase in IOP is most likely to occur up to the age of three (Scheie, 1955) after which the sclera may become deformed up to age ten (Mann, 1957). Breaks occur in the endothelium and Descemet’s membrane due to the increase in IOP which also causes stretching in these layers (Vincent P Deluise, 1983).   ‘Haab’s striae form as endothelial cells lay down new basements membrane (Descemet’s membrane) and hyaline ridges develop. Breaks in Descemet’s membrane from increased IOP rarely occur after age three’ (Vincent P Deluise, 1983).   Increased IOP also causes slow expansion of the sclera of the neonate. A ‘bluish’ scleral appearance is seen due to thinning of the sclera, causing the choro id to be more apparent (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). As the neonate becomes older and growth occurs the expansion of the sclera no longer occurs due to a build-up of extracellular connective tissue (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). Even if the IOP decreases back to a value within normal the globe does not usually return to normal size (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). Studies have shown that myopia and astigmatism are the consequence of an increase in the axial length of the globe, figure 5 (Robin AL, 1979). Robin et al also found that ‘In contrast to adult eyes, the scleral canal in children apparently enlarges with high IOP. Thus, disk cup size increase in children could occur from neural tissue loss, from scleral canal enlargement, or from a combination of the two processes’ (Robin AL, 1979). ‘Myopic astigmatism and anisometropia are particularly common in cases of unilateral or asymmetric primary infantile glaucoma’ (Vincent P Deluise, 1983).   A study carried out by Broughton and Parks found that all of their patients with unilateral primary infantile glaucoma had anisometropia; on the affected side an average difference of 4.93D of myopia was found (Broughton WL, 1981 May). Optic nerve changes which occur in adults with glaucoma are very different to the optic nerve changes which occur in children with glaucoma. At first Becker Shaffer initially thought that cupping in primary infantile glaucoma was a process which was gradual however it was soon discovered that optic nerve changes in primary infantile glaucoma could also occur early and rapidly (Becker B, 1965). In adults with optic nerve changes which occur due to an increase in IOP the change is very unlikely to be reversible, however in infants optic nerve cupping which occurs due to an increase in IOP can be reversed once the IOP is returned back to normal (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). The most accepted and most reasonable hypothesis which aims to explain why cupping is reversible in neonates is based on the fact that the connective tissue of the lamina cribrosa is not matured (Quigley, 1977 Sep). However there are cases when even though the pressure has decreased back to normal the Optic nerve head damage does not reverse, this is due to one of two reasons. Firstly it is possible that some of the stretching is permanent ‘with remoulding of the connective tissue’   (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). Secondly it could be due to ‘a loss of glial and axons’ (Vincent P Deluise, 1983).   ‘Adult optic nerve heads with their dense connective tissue investments are more resistant to remoulding, indicating that cupping is caused by permanent loss of glia and axons’ (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). Pathology, Pathogeneses and Causes of Primary Infantile Glaucoma The explanation for the increase in IOP in primary infantile glaucoma has been described using Barkan’s membrane theory. This theory is based on the fact that the anterior chamber angle is covered by a thin and imperforate membrane, which inhibits aqueous outflow, which in turn leads to raised IOP (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). According to the theory, this raised IOP is treated by goniotomy when the surface tissue of this membrane is detached, and so â€Å"the peripheral iris falls posteriorly,† subsequently there is aqueous outflow and a decrease in IOP (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). Worst also agreed with the Barkan membrane theory, â€Å"†¦in congenital glaucoma the chamber angle is filled with a band of persistent mesodermal tissue (persistent uveal meshwork or persistent pectinate ligament). This tissue completely covers the fetal corneoscleral system, but is not the cause of the obstruction to aqueous outflow in its own right. It is the presence of an imperforate surface layer on this persistent mesodermal tissue, which is the only cause of obstructed outflow. This surface membrane, Barkans membrane, is probably an endothelial surface, which normally breaks apart, but which persists in congenital glaucoma† (Worst, April 1968). There is no well supported histopathologic evidence to support Barkan’s membrane theory, despite this Worst still believes that the theory along with its concepts are valid, he says â€Å"though histopathologic proof of this structure is almost completely lacking†¦this has little influence on the probability th at this concept is valid† (Worst, April 1968). So if Barkan’s membrane theory has insufficient evidence to explain the cause of an increase in IOP in congenital glaucoma, then what is the alternative? There is some histopathologic evidence which aims to explain in detail the anterior chamber angle and its histopathology in infants with primary infantile glaucoma see Figure 6 (Vincent P Deluise, 1983). Anderson thoroughly researched the development of the trabecular meshwork in infantile glaucoma. He said that earlier thoughts were that â€Å"the anterior chamber recess deepens by atrophy of the rarified tissue that in the earlier stage separated the trabecular meshwork and ciliary body.† He then confirmed that later thoughts highlighted the function of cleavage into the loose tissue, as there was no proof of atrophy (D.R.Anderson, 1981). These views may have seemed correct at the time however, evidence has proven that cleavage or atrophy are not the only explanations of the process of development. Both cleavage and atrophy would cause the uveal tract to become fragmented from the shell of the cornea and sclera as well as the tissue of the trabeculae (Fig 7A) (D.R.Anderson, 1981). This would result in extension of the ciliary muscle to the peripheral iris and on the posterior surface of the peripheral iris would be the ciliary processes (D.R.Anderson, 1981). However this does not actually occur, in fact the ciliary muscle and the ciliary processes continue to adhere to the envelope of the cornea and sclera although compared to their earlier position they do become depressed (Fig 7B) (D.R.Anderson, 1981). Anderson found that there is an overlay of the ciliary muscle in particular the ciliary processes over the trabecular meshwork; however they are subsequently depressed behind the scleral spur (D.R.Anderson, 1981). He found that â€Å"This repositioning can be explained only by a posterior sliding of the uveal tissues in relation to the cornea and sclera, presumably due to a differential growth rate of the various tissue elements† (D.R.Anderson, 1981). He concluded that this course of repositioning was not simply due to the â€Å"sliding of the uveal tract along the inner side of the sclera. There is also a repositioning of the various layers within the uveal tract in relation to one another: initially the innermost muscle fibers have a position relatively more anterior than the outermost fibers† (D.R.Anderson, 1981) Anderson also found that compared to the ciliary muscle the ciliary processes are at first a lot more frontward, as time passes both become level behind the scleral spur and meshwork (D.R.Anderson, 1981). So, far it has been established that primary infantile glaucoma occurs because the anterior chamber does not develop normally. At what stage of development do these changes or lack of changes occur? It has been noted that at week twelve of development â€Å"a wedge shaped mass of mesenchyme can be identified at the anterior chamber angle i.e. at the junction of the papillary membrane and the lateral margins of the cornea. Within this wedge shaped portion of the tissue there is a row of small capillaries, which are lined with mesoderm-derived vascular endothelial cells† (A.Armstrong, 2008). At the beginning of the fifth month â€Å"early trabeculae are apparent separated by intervening spaces† (A.Armstrong, 2008) subsequently the capillaries fuse to form the canal of Schlemm, this is continuous with the collector channels as well as the scleral vessels (A.Armstrong, 2008). â€Å"The meshwork becomes specialised into inner uveal trabeculae, numerous intermediate layers of lamellar corneoscleral trabeculae, and a more loosely organised cribriform meshwork† (A.Armstrong, 2008). The inner surface of the meshwork is lined with cuboidal cells, perforations of these cells occur onwards from 15 weeks (A.Armstrong, 2008). Communication between the meshwork and the anterior chamber occur via these cuboidal cells (A.Armstrong, 2008). Between the sixth and ninth month development of the anterior chamber occurs (A.Armstrong, 2008). It presents â€Å"as a chink in the mesoderm between the iris root and the developing trabeculum. If the mesoderm does not entirely regres s in this region, an impervious layer may remain bridging the angle between the iris and the cornea and which impedes access of aqueous to the trabecular meshwork† (A.Armstrong, 2008). Figure 8: Comparision of optic cup asymmetry in normal infants with unilateral glaucoma infants. Taken from (Richardson, April 1968) Optic Cup Asymmetry in Primary Infantile Glaucoma It has been established that chronic open angle glaucoma is found to be bilateral and symmetrical to a certain extent, however some meticulous studies may find that there is somewhat of asymmetry in the cupping of the optic discs (Richardson, April 1968). Nevertheless the asymmetry of the discs can be used to diagnose early signs of glaucoma (Richardson, April 1968). Although optic disc cupping is assessed in infantile glaucoma it is not used as prominently compared to chronic open angle glaucoma (Richardson, April 1968). One of the reasons for this is due to the obvious fact that it is not as easy to conduct ophthalmoscopy in infants especially with added factors such as hazy corneas, miotic pupils (Richardson KT, 1966). It is also a common misconception that cupping in the optic nerve occurs at a very late stage and so it is no longer relevant to aid diagnosis (Richardson, April 1968). The opposite is actually true, as changes to the optic disc in infantile glaucoma occur relatively early on, hence valuable factor to aid prognosis (Shaffer.RN, 1967). To emphasise the importance of asymmetry of optic discs in infantile glaucoma compared to chronic glaucoma, the following study was conducted by Kenneth Richardson. Normal newborn infants, 96 hours old or less, were randomly chosen and their optic discs were assessed. Out of 468 it was found that only 11 infants had optic cup asymmetry, 2.3%; figure 8 (Richardson, April 1968). Similarly Snydacker found that out a random 500 adults only 15 had any sign of asymmetry, 3% (SyndackerD, 1964). Going back to the infants it was found that only 3 out of the 11 actually had marked asymmetry between their optic cups i.e. only 0.6%; figure 8 (Richardson, April 1968). A very different but much predicted result was found when Shaffer conducted a slightly different study (Shaffer.RN, 1967). 27 infants with unilateral glaucoma were assessed and it was found that 89% or 24 out of 27 had marked asymmetry; figure 8 (Shaffer.RN, 1967). In other infantile glaucoma studies Schaffer also found that 61% (52/85) patients had optic cups with a disc diameter greater than 1/3 in comparison to 2.6%(26/936) normal newborns who had optic cups with a disc diameter greater than 1/3 (Shaffer.RN, 1967). The above data provides vital evidence supporting the views that optic disc assessment in newborn infants is extremely important and any asymmetry in optic cupping is very significant as ‘normal’ infants are expected and likely to have symmetrical optic cups. Hence any asymmetry of cupping could be indicative of congenital glaucoma. Also it can be said that optic cupping assessment is of more importance in congenital glaucomas â€Å"since these cases are prone to follow a more asymmetrical course than adult glaucomas† (Richardson, April 1968). In order chronic glaucoma in order to be able to determine whether cupping is physiological or pathological the disc appearance must be tracked over many years. Whereas in newborns the cupping is expected to be symmetrical at birth therefore any asymmetry should be and can be picked up at birth (Richardson, April 1968). Secondary infantile glaucoma There are several causes of secondary infantile glaucoma, the most important is ocular trauma and this is due to the fact that ocular trauma is common in young infants. Blunt trauma to the eye causes compression of the globe which in turn leads to a temporary increase in IOP. When a blunt object hits the eye its cause indentation of the cornea, this then forces the aqueous humor â€Å"laterally against the anterior chambers angle structures and backwards against the iris and lens† (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Thereafter â€Å"in the anterior segment the iris sphincter ruptures† (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970) the ciliary body could become separated from the scleral spur or it may just be split or torn (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Likewise the trabecular meshwork may become ruptured, consequently leading to glaucoma (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Traumatic iritis is another cause of secondary glaucoma. Blunt ocular trauma can cause inflammatory cells and increase in proteins in the aqueous humor, in the early stages. These cells along with the protein molecules then cause obstruction of the trabecular meshwork. (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970) Oedema of the trabecular meshwork will also lead to resistance in the outflow of the aqueous. Even though there is an increase in the resistance of outflow, the IOP will remain within a normal range and in some cases it may actually be lower than normal because the blow will have caused depression of the ciliary body along with hyposecretion (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Anterior chamber haemorrhage (hyphema) occurs due to trauma or injury to the eye. Small haemorrhages are unlikely to clot, however large haemorrhages may fill the anterior chamber and cause compression of the meshwork which in turn leads to an acute increase in IOP (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Another cause of secondary glaucoma is recession of the anterior chamber angle. â€Å"A significant percentage of traumatic hyphemas results from a longitudinal cleavage of the ciliary body† (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). A chain of damage reactions which occur to the trabecular meshwork following this will decrease the outflow and lead to glaucoma. Contusion cataract can be caused by blunt trauma. â€Å"If the cataract intumesces, a phacogenic pupillary block glaucoma may result. If the cataract becomes hypermature the lens cortex which is liquefied may leak into the anterior chamber†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970) a macrophage response occurs and these cells then cause an increase in IOP as they block access of the aqueous to the trabecular meshwork. (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970) This is known as phacolytic glaucoma. Dislocation of the lens most likely occurs due to trauma, and if the lens after dislocation ends up in the anterior chamber then pupillary block glaucoma is l ikely (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Secondary glaucoma is usually the result of a laceration to the globe. A blunt blow, by a child’s fist, is often very serious as the smaller size of the fist does not allow the orbit to provide protection and the blow lands straight on the eye (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Intra-ocular foreign bodies can also cause glaucoma; particles which contain iron will oxidise and can be toxic to structures within the eye such as the trabecular meshwork (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Severe iritis can lead to glaucoma, and transient or chronic glaucoma can result from inflammation of the trabecular meshwork with increased resistance to outflow (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970).   Inflammation of the cornea can also cause secondary glaucoma, due to further inflammation of the meshwork leading to obstruction of the aqueous outflow (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). It is well-known that glaucoma can be induced by steroids. An increase in IOP can be induced by prolonged use of topical steroids, in susceptible individuals. Ocular tumours uncommon in children, however if one is present it can sometimes lead to secondary glaucoma (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Retinoblastoma, a well-known and common tumour found in the young can also cause glaucoma. The tumour will invade the anterior chamber angle structures; iris and trabecular meshwork. There is a very strong link between prenatal rubella infection and glaucoma and it is now well agreed upon that prenatal rubella can in fact cause glaucoma. It is estimated that rubella infantile glaucoma occurs in 2-4% of children with congenital rubella syndrome (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). It usually presents in the first six months of life and the symptoms are identical to those of primary congenital glaucoma; an enlarged oedematous cornea which is cloudy, a deep anterior chamber and the classic high IOP (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). Clinically it is found to be almost impossible to distinguish rubella infantile glaucoma from primary congenital glaucoma (Robert N. Shaffer, 1970). In conclusion, it has been determined that although rare conditions both primary and secondary infantile glaucoma can significantly affect the life of a child. Hence examination of the optic discs at birth is vital to ensure that any asymmetry of optic cups is detected and the possibility of the newborn developing glaucoma is known immediately, as it has been proven that infants with glaucoma are significantly more likely to show asymmetry of optic cupping compared to ‘normal’ infants. If the glaucoma is not detected at birth it is vital that healthcare professionals are able to recognise the signs and symptoms of infantile glaucoma so it can be treated before any significant damage has occurred, as it has been proven that the majority of children present with all or some of the signs and symptoms of glaucoma yet they are either overlooked by the parents or misdiagnosed by clinicians. In relation to the pathogenesis of infantile glaucoma significant evidence or lack of has proven that Worst along with Barkan’s Membrane theory are no longer valid. Vital histopathologic evidence undermines the theory; in fact Anderson has provided substantial evidence to prove that repositioning, sliding, cleavage and atrophy play a significant role in the development of primary infantile glaucoma. Along with the histopathologic evidence it can be concluded that Anderson’s findings can be accepted. References A. Edward Maumenee, M. (1962). Further observations on the pathogenesis of congenital glaucoma. TR. AM. OPHTH J. SOC, VOl. 60, 140-162. A.Armstrong, R. (2008, December 12th). Congenital Glaucoma; The genetics of primary congenital glaucoma. Optometry Today, pp. 40-43. Becker B, S. R. (1965). Diagnosis and Therapy of the Glaucomas. St Louis: CV Mosby. Broughton WL, P. M. (1981 May). An analysis of treatment of congenital glaucoma by goniotomy. Am J Ophthalmol. , 91(5):566-72. Ching Lin Ho, F. a. (September/October 2004). Primary Congenital Glaucoma: 2004 Update. Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus , Vol. 41:271-288. D.R.Anderson. (1981). The development of the trabecular meshwork and its abnormality in primary infantile glaucoma. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc, 79:458-85. David J. Seidman MD1, L. B. (3 March 1986). Signs and Symptoms in the Presentation of Primary Infantile Glaucoma. PEDIATRICS , Vol. 77 No. pp. 399-404. Harley, R. D. (1983). Pediatric Ophthalmology. Saunders. John S Crawford, J. D. (1983). The Eye in Childhood. New York: Grune and Stratton. Kanski, J. J. (2003). Clinical Ophthalmology A Systematic Approach. Butterworth Heinemann. Kwitko, M. (1973). Glaucoma in Infants and Children (ed 2). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Mann, I. (1957). Developmental Abnormalities of the Eye. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott. MillerSJ. (1966). Genetic aspects of glaucoma. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K., 86:425-34. Moller, P. (1977). Goniotomy and congenital glaucoma. Acta Ophthal, pp. 55: 436-442. Morin JD, M. S. (1974). Primary congenital glaucoma: a survey. Can J Ophthal, pp. 9:17-28. Myron Yanoff, J. S. (2009). Ophthalmology. Mosby Elsevier. NEI. (1968-date). Glaucoma. Retrieved February 2011, from National Eye Institue: nei.nih.gov/health/glaucoma/glaucoma_facts.asp Quigley, H. (1977 Sep). The pathogenesis of reversible cupping in congenital glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol., 84(3):358-70. Richardson KT, S. R. (1966). Optic nerve cupping in congenital glaucoma. Am J. Ophth., 62: 507. Richardson, K. T. (April 1968). Optic Cup symmetry in normal newborn infants. Investigative Ophthalmology, 137-140. Robert N. Shaffer, D. I. (1970). Congenital and Pediatric Glaucomas. USA: The C. V. Mosby Company. Robin AL, Q. H. (1979). An analysis of visual acuity, visual fields, and disk cupping in childhood glaucoma. Am J Ophthal , 88(5):847-58. Scheie, H. (1955). Symposiumon congenital glaucoma: Diagnosis, clinical course and treatment other than goniotomy (ed 2). Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 59, pp. 309–321. Shaffer.RN. (1967). New concepts in infantile glaucoma. Canad J. Ophth, 2: 243. SyndackerD. (1964). The normal optic disc. Ophthalmoscopic and photographic studies. Arch Ophthal, 58:958. Vincent P Deluise, D. R. (1983). Primary Infantile Glaucoma (Congenital Glaucoma). 28(1). Worst, J. G. (April 1968). Congenital glaucoma Remarks on the aspect of chamber angle: Ontogenic and pathogenic background and mode action of goniotomy. Investigative Ophthalmology, 7:127-134.

Perception Dependence Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Perception Dependence Argument - Essay Example For instance, by stating that X=Y and Y=Z, it implies that X=Z. This is an example of logical arguments. However, there are arguments that are based on incorrect principles of logics, leading to logical fallacies and false or illogical conclusions. One type of argument that has attracted a lot of debates and controversy with regards to the truth about its premises and inferences/conclusions is perception-dependent argument. This paper thus evaluates whether the premises of the perception-Dependent Argument are true. In addition, the paper explores whether the argument’s inference are good. Perception Dependent Arguments The awareness or apprehension of one’s environment through senses such as sight, touch, hearing, smell, taste is referred to as perception, a study area that has continued to intrigue not only philosophers but also other scholars since historical times2. One reason perception-dependent arguments have always been considered fallacious is the problem creat ed by the association of perception with hallucinations and illusions. Both hallucination and illusion refer to situations in which a person perceives objects in ways that in which they do not exist. Thus, the possibilities of errors occasioned by illusions and hallucinations make the true nature of arguments based on perception questionable. Because of illusion- and hallucination-related errors, arguments, their premises and inferences, always based on perception, lead to questions on whether perceptions are intuitively what they appear to be. Perceptions could therefore not be directly linked to reality and neither are they necessarily the immediate access to reality. The possibility of hallucination and illusion errors in perception dependent arguments therefore challenges the logical nature of arguments based on perceptions. Illusion refers to a situation in which an object or subject is perceived to appear in way other than it really is. For instance, using a yellow light in a house with white walls make the walls appear have yellow color. Another example of illusion is the sour taste of a sweet drink if consumed immediately after consuming a sweeter drink. It should however be noted that illusion does not imply there is deception since one is not deceived into believing that objects are not what they are. In other words, there is a possibility that one may actually be aware that he/she is experiencing an illusion. From the illusion and hallucination errors that perception dependent arguments are prone to, it is imperative that the obvious truth of peoples’ experiences and the perception-related errors in arguments are reconciled. The perceptual experiences otherwise referred to as openness to the world, which lead to true premises and good inferences in arguments, have been consistently challenged by the existence of illusions and hallucinations. From its definition, it is apparent that basing one’s arguments on illusion will most likely re sult in false premises and bad conclusions/inferences. Arguments based on perceptions (illusions and hallucinations) always occur through certain steps. When one is under illusion, an object appears to have some characteristic or quality F. In reality, the object under view, feel, taste, or touch does not always have the perceived quality. Interestingly, another object encountered or experienced somewhere by the person under illusion possesses the quality/feature F perceived by the person. In